Human relationships - Psychology IB Study Notes

Human relationships in psychology examine the formation, maintenance, and dissolution of interpersonal bonds through biological, cognitive, and sociocultural lenses.

Attraction refers to the psychological force drawing individuals together. Key theories include:

Similarity-Attraction Hypothesis: We prefer those sharing attitudes, values, and characteristics. Mnemonic: SAME attracts - Shared Attitudes Motivate Engagement.

Social Exchange Theory (SET): Relationships are cost-benefit transactions. We seek to maximize rewards while minimizing costs. The formula: Satisfaction = Rewards - Costs. When satisfaction falls below our comparison level (expectations based on past relationships) or comparison level for alternatives (better options available), dissolution becomes likely.

Investment Model (Rusbult): Commitment = Satisfaction + Investment - Quality of Alternatives. Commitment is the intention to persist; investment includes tangible/intangible resources.

Attachment Theory (Bowlby): Early caregiver bonds create internal working models—mental templates for future relationships. Four styles exist: secure, anxious-ambivalent, avoidant, and disorganized.

Bystanderism explains helping behavior failure. Diffusion of responsibility occurs when group presence reduces individual obligation. Mnemonic: PLAN - Pluralistic ignorance, Latané & Darley, Ambiguity, Notice the situation.

Prosocial behavior encompasses voluntary actions benefiting others. Altruism is selfless helping; reciprocal altruism expects future returns.

Communication involves verbal (words) and non-verbal (body language, tone) channels. Cultural display rules govern emotional expression across societies.

Cambridge Key Point: Always distinguish between correlation and causation in relationship research. Studies show associations, not necessarily causes.

Understanding human relationships requires examining how theoretical concepts manifest in everyday life.

Attraction in Action: Dating apps like Tinder demonstrate the matching hypothesis—people pair with similarly attractive partners. When profiles show shared interests (similarity-attraction), matches increase. Think of attraction like magnetic force: opposite charges (complementary needs) sometimes attract, but similar charges (shared values) create stable bonds.

Social Exchange in Friendships: Consider a university friendship where one person constantly borrows notes without reciprocating. SET predicts this relationship will deteriorate as costs exceed rewards. Real-world application: successful relationships maintain equity—both parties contribute proportionally. Workplace mentorships demonstrate this: mentees provide fresh perspectives (reward) while mentors invest time (cost), but gain career satisfaction.

Attachment Across Life: A child with secure attachment (responsive caregiver) develops confidence exploring relationships. As adults, they communicate needs effectively in romantic partnerships. Conversely, anxious-ambivalent individuals (inconsistent caregiving) may exhibit relationship anxiety, constantly seeking reassurance—observable in excessive texting or jealousy behaviors.

Bystander Effect Reality: The 1964 Kitty Genovese case (38 witnesses, no intervention) catalyzed research. Modern examples include online cyberbullying where observers don't report abuse. Why? Pluralistic ignorance—everyone assumes someone else will act.

Cultural Communication: Japanese amae (dependent intimacy) contrasts Western individualism. In collectivist cultures, indirect communication preserves group harmony. A Japanese employee might say "That's difficult" meaning "No," while Western directness prefers explicit refusal.

Analogy: Relationships are like bank accounts—regular deposits (positive interactions) build reserves for inevitable withdrawals (conflicts).